Emerson Goes to the Movies: Individualism in Walt Disney Company's Post-1989 Animated Films - mainly 'Pocahontas' Chapter 5
by Justyna Fruzińska (2014)
Cambridge Scholars Publishing
ISBN-9781443866576
To purchase, visit - cambridgescholars.com/product/978-1-4438-6657-6
I'll confess right away that I haven't read this whole book, as I'm mainly interested in how it relates to Pocahontas. That said, if it's possible to love a book after only reading three chapters (out of 9), then I do love this book. Ralph Waldo Emerson is considered one of the important early figures in American literature who defined what it means to be an 'American.' However, he is not considered a scintillating read, and I don't believe I've ever met anyone who has cited Emerson as their favorite American author. Fruzińska's book, which is more about Disney movies than about Emerson, nevertheless makes Emerson accessible and relevant while showing us a new and fascinating angle to the Disney Pocahontas movie. After reading this, I can look at both Emerson and the movie with new-found appreciation.
Cambridge Scholars Publishing
ISBN-9781443866576
To purchase, visit - cambridgescholars.com/product/978-1-4438-6657-6
I'll confess right away that I haven't read this whole book, as I'm mainly interested in how it relates to Pocahontas. That said, if it's possible to love a book after only reading three chapters (out of 9), then I do love this book. Ralph Waldo Emerson is considered one of the important early figures in American literature who defined what it means to be an 'American.' However, he is not considered a scintillating read, and I don't believe I've ever met anyone who has cited Emerson as their favorite American author. Fruzińska's book, which is more about Disney movies than about Emerson, nevertheless makes Emerson accessible and relevant while showing us a new and fascinating angle to the Disney Pocahontas movie. After reading this, I can look at both Emerson and the movie with new-found appreciation.
What follows is an introduction to the book, namely quotes from chapters one and two, which explain how Emersonian philosophy pervades Disney films, followed by more quotes, paraphrases, and commentary on the Pocahontas chapter 5, pages 75 to 91.
Chapter One - Introduction
The author (Justyna Fruzińska) establishes the goal of connecting Emersonian individualism in Disney post-1989 films, stating that the "importance of Emerson in the American cultural tradition is hard to overestimate." (p. 1). Quoting Harold Bloom, she says "the American history of literature can be largely seen as moments of either affirmation or negation (or a blend of both) of Emerson {Bloom 1975, p. 163; in Fruzińska p. 1).
"The part of Emerson's legacy this book focuses on is individualism as one of the most prominent features of the philosopher's views, and one of the defining traits of American identity." (p. 2)
:"The model of the Disney Company's films is strongly Emersonian, with the hero being different (and better) than his/her surroundings, listening to his/her heart and striving at self-realization whatever the cost." (p. 2)
"Emerson's self-reliance is one of the key constituents of American identity, which allows one to view the Disney Company as expressing a sort of national myth." (p. 2)
"Disney is chosen here as an important example. prominent because of the monolithic nature of the Company's productions, and important because of its being aimed at the younger viewer. Just like other art works intended for children, Disney films are steeped in ideology and American national myths, and because of their educational role it seems relevant to acknowledge this level and discuss the sources of the Disney worldview." (p. 4)
"... this book presents Romantic individualism with reference to such categories as race, gender, class, or imperialism. The idea behind such an approach is to see how various cultural fields intersect with individualism; whether individualism means the same for men and women; whether, as an American ideology, it succeeds at erasing differences when applied to exotic and non-individualist cultures; whether the individual turns out to be stronger than all social divides, and whether individualism can be seen as informing the American mentality on a national scale, and what are its political implications." (p. 7)
"Amy M. Davis's Good Girls and Wicked Witches (2006) deals with the construction and evolution of femininity in Disney films. She claims that the portrayal of women has changed over the years and that women have been depicted as much more liberated since the release of Pocahontas. For Davis, Disney's heroines become more active as a result of the demand for political correctness; the new Disney woman is supposedly interested mostly in realizing herself, though she can express love and attraction (Davis 2006, 185, in Fruzińska p. 8)
"There seems to be a general tendency among critics to focus on Disney's didactic role; those scholars who are interested in Disney's ideology tend to warn against the values that Disney espouses to children thanks to its hegemonic power (Ward 2002, 115), and believe that naming the Company's ideological sins will offer a way of protecting consumers from further indoctrination. Those who mention individualism, like Lee Artz, criticize the crypto-fascist ideology of Disney films that undermines social solidarity. With the exception of Whitley, no authors discuss where Disney's ideology comes from, or notice that it is natively American." (p. 10)
"This book, instead of focusing on Disney's influence upon its audience, concerns rather what influences Disney, how Disney reflects the American mentality, and how the idea of individualism is depicted in particular films." (p. 11)
The author (Justyna Fruzińska) establishes the goal of connecting Emersonian individualism in Disney post-1989 films, stating that the "importance of Emerson in the American cultural tradition is hard to overestimate." (p. 1). Quoting Harold Bloom, she says "the American history of literature can be largely seen as moments of either affirmation or negation (or a blend of both) of Emerson {Bloom 1975, p. 163; in Fruzińska p. 1).
"The part of Emerson's legacy this book focuses on is individualism as one of the most prominent features of the philosopher's views, and one of the defining traits of American identity." (p. 2)
:"The model of the Disney Company's films is strongly Emersonian, with the hero being different (and better) than his/her surroundings, listening to his/her heart and striving at self-realization whatever the cost." (p. 2)
"Emerson's self-reliance is one of the key constituents of American identity, which allows one to view the Disney Company as expressing a sort of national myth." (p. 2)
"Disney is chosen here as an important example. prominent because of the monolithic nature of the Company's productions, and important because of its being aimed at the younger viewer. Just like other art works intended for children, Disney films are steeped in ideology and American national myths, and because of their educational role it seems relevant to acknowledge this level and discuss the sources of the Disney worldview." (p. 4)
"... this book presents Romantic individualism with reference to such categories as race, gender, class, or imperialism. The idea behind such an approach is to see how various cultural fields intersect with individualism; whether individualism means the same for men and women; whether, as an American ideology, it succeeds at erasing differences when applied to exotic and non-individualist cultures; whether the individual turns out to be stronger than all social divides, and whether individualism can be seen as informing the American mentality on a national scale, and what are its political implications." (p. 7)
"Amy M. Davis's Good Girls and Wicked Witches (2006) deals with the construction and evolution of femininity in Disney films. She claims that the portrayal of women has changed over the years and that women have been depicted as much more liberated since the release of Pocahontas. For Davis, Disney's heroines become more active as a result of the demand for political correctness; the new Disney woman is supposedly interested mostly in realizing herself, though she can express love and attraction (Davis 2006, 185, in Fruzińska p. 8)
"There seems to be a general tendency among critics to focus on Disney's didactic role; those scholars who are interested in Disney's ideology tend to warn against the values that Disney espouses to children thanks to its hegemonic power (Ward 2002, 115), and believe that naming the Company's ideological sins will offer a way of protecting consumers from further indoctrination. Those who mention individualism, like Lee Artz, criticize the crypto-fascist ideology of Disney films that undermines social solidarity. With the exception of Whitley, no authors discuss where Disney's ideology comes from, or notice that it is natively American." (p. 10)
"This book, instead of focusing on Disney's influence upon its audience, concerns rather what influences Disney, how Disney reflects the American mentality, and how the idea of individualism is depicted in particular films." (p. 11)
Chapter Two - Individualism and the Spirit of America
Fruzińska begins Chapter 2 with a quote by Paula Gunn Allen to introduce her discussion of Individualism: "The ideal hero, a single individual, wreaks his will upon one or more hapless groups (who, one way or another, are generally perceived as in opposition to individualistic goals). He does so by means of engaging in conflict, bringing it to a crisis, and resolving that crisis in such a way that individualistic values are affirmed. This classic fictional structure informs most of American culture, not only in its refined and popular aesthetic forms, but in most institutions as well (Allen 1989, 4), in Fruzińska, (p. 13).
"... [individualism] can be seen as a form of anti-collectivism, juxtaposing the individual against society, in which individual interests shall supersede those of the group. This is the notion of individualism cherished by Romantic writers in both the European and American traditions. The second dimension could be identified as anti-determinism: a belief that the individual can surmount social determinants and restrictions, being the sole or principal architect of his/her own fortune. both these levels refer to the relationship of the self and society. Fruzińska, (p. 13, 14)
Fruzińska explains that "individualism" initially had a negative connotation in colonial America but established itself as a positive value after the Civil War. "It seems that it was much later, around the time of the Civil War, that individualism started to gain supreme importance in the American self-mage (527). This view is consistent with the idea that it was the Romantics who prepared the ground for the concept in America, and that only after them did it become a solid constituent of what may be seen as American mentality and self-determination. For Arieli, "Once this concept had captured the public mind it was increasingly accepted as a basic characteristic of American society. By the end of the Civil War the term, with growing frequency, described the unique character of the nation: (Arieli 1964, 192). in Fruzińska (p. 14)
"The importance of individualism stems from the fact that it is widely believed to be one of the main constituents of the American national character. Seymour Martin Lipset, a political sociologist dealing with American mentality, distinguishes five terms which characterize "the American Creed": "liberty, egalitarianism, individualism, populism, and laissez-faire" (Lipset 1997, 19). Quite understandably, there seems to be an apparent tension between individualism and egalitarianism, but LIpset further explains that American understanding of egalitarianism involves "equality of opportunity and respect, not of result or condition" (19).3 In Fruzińska (p. 17)
"To sum up, Emerson's idea of self-reliance is characterized not only by his insistence on the superiority of the individual to the mass, but also by its democracy (as the genius, being a better specimen of humankind, potentially exists in all people), and by the ever-present tension between the self and society, which at the same time repel and compel each other. Emerson goes beyond the naive Romantic assumption that one can head to the woods and remain there unified with the ultimate truth of Nature; instead, he realizes that the final step must consist in returning to society. This philosophy influences a significant part of the American intellectual tradition that follows." (p. 26)
"Criticized, certainly, but Emerson has been a major influence on the American tradition. Individualism was a motif common to all of Romanticism, and it is often impossible to draw the line between European and American ideas of the period. Still, it seems that American writers of subsequent generations had to face mainly Emerson's legacy. To use Harold Bloom's terminology, Emerson became America's strong poet-philosopher, who needed to be accepted or fought against. Despite the fact that his own views were distinctly opposed to materialism and greed of his contemporaries, in the course of time his legacy has been combined with Jacksonian economic policy and resulted in a pro-capitalist version of individualism." (p. 29)
Fruzińska begins Chapter 2 with a quote by Paula Gunn Allen to introduce her discussion of Individualism: "The ideal hero, a single individual, wreaks his will upon one or more hapless groups (who, one way or another, are generally perceived as in opposition to individualistic goals). He does so by means of engaging in conflict, bringing it to a crisis, and resolving that crisis in such a way that individualistic values are affirmed. This classic fictional structure informs most of American culture, not only in its refined and popular aesthetic forms, but in most institutions as well (Allen 1989, 4), in Fruzińska, (p. 13).
"... [individualism] can be seen as a form of anti-collectivism, juxtaposing the individual against society, in which individual interests shall supersede those of the group. This is the notion of individualism cherished by Romantic writers in both the European and American traditions. The second dimension could be identified as anti-determinism: a belief that the individual can surmount social determinants and restrictions, being the sole or principal architect of his/her own fortune. both these levels refer to the relationship of the self and society. Fruzińska, (p. 13, 14)
Fruzińska explains that "individualism" initially had a negative connotation in colonial America but established itself as a positive value after the Civil War. "It seems that it was much later, around the time of the Civil War, that individualism started to gain supreme importance in the American self-mage (527). This view is consistent with the idea that it was the Romantics who prepared the ground for the concept in America, and that only after them did it become a solid constituent of what may be seen as American mentality and self-determination. For Arieli, "Once this concept had captured the public mind it was increasingly accepted as a basic characteristic of American society. By the end of the Civil War the term, with growing frequency, described the unique character of the nation: (Arieli 1964, 192). in Fruzińska (p. 14)
"The importance of individualism stems from the fact that it is widely believed to be one of the main constituents of the American national character. Seymour Martin Lipset, a political sociologist dealing with American mentality, distinguishes five terms which characterize "the American Creed": "liberty, egalitarianism, individualism, populism, and laissez-faire" (Lipset 1997, 19). Quite understandably, there seems to be an apparent tension between individualism and egalitarianism, but LIpset further explains that American understanding of egalitarianism involves "equality of opportunity and respect, not of result or condition" (19).3 In Fruzińska (p. 17)
"To sum up, Emerson's idea of self-reliance is characterized not only by his insistence on the superiority of the individual to the mass, but also by its democracy (as the genius, being a better specimen of humankind, potentially exists in all people), and by the ever-present tension between the self and society, which at the same time repel and compel each other. Emerson goes beyond the naive Romantic assumption that one can head to the woods and remain there unified with the ultimate truth of Nature; instead, he realizes that the final step must consist in returning to society. This philosophy influences a significant part of the American intellectual tradition that follows." (p. 26)
"Criticized, certainly, but Emerson has been a major influence on the American tradition. Individualism was a motif common to all of Romanticism, and it is often impossible to draw the line between European and American ideas of the period. Still, it seems that American writers of subsequent generations had to face mainly Emerson's legacy. To use Harold Bloom's terminology, Emerson became America's strong poet-philosopher, who needed to be accepted or fought against. Despite the fact that his own views were distinctly opposed to materialism and greed of his contemporaries, in the course of time his legacy has been combined with Jacksonian economic policy and resulted in a pro-capitalist version of individualism." (p. 29)
[Slightly off topic here, but I'm reading Ron Chernow's Alexander Hamilton (2004), and I came across this quote on self-reliance:
- "In a nation of self-made people, Hamilton became an emblematic figure because he believed that government ought to promote self-fulfillment, self-improvement, and self-reliance. His own life offered an extraordinary object lesson in social mobility, and his unstinting energy illustrated his devout belief in the salutary power of work to develop people's minds and bodies." p. 345
Chap. 5 - The Other is the Same, or Transculturality of Individualism: Pocahontas, Aladdin
Fruzińska has a nice writing style, and as much as I'd like to quote her extensively on the Pocahontas chapter, I suspect she would not be happy about that, since she chose not to provide a handout of her presentation on it at the Pocahontas and After conference, preferring that interested people buy her book (which I did). I would encourage any readers here to do the same. Meanwhile, I will paraphrase some parts and quote her words somewhat sparingly.
She begins the chapter by stating that Disney adapts stories from various cultures, giving them well-known American themes. Pocahontas, she says, is an example of how the heroine has individualistic goals despite coming from a communal culture.
Fruzińska quotes Stephanie A. Sellers' definition of "Native Communal Ethics" and shows how Pocahontas mostly fails to live up to those. Sellers identifies four conditions "members of the community; in relationship with each other; intelligent, sentient, conscious, and having spirit; able to communicate to human beings if they with to" (Sellers 2008, 23) in Fruzińska p. 75. Fruzińska states that the Pocahontas character exhibits little consciousness of belonging to a community, and her "relationship to all beings" is reduced to her communicating to a willow tree. {I feel I should object here, as Pocahontas clearly also exhibits a special relationship with Meeko, the raccoon.] She states that "Pocahontas is mostly a self-reliant individual and the community is only an impediment to her personal development, which she does not hesitate to put in danger for the sake of her romance." p. 75.
Fruzińska shows how the opening scenes of Pocahontas establish the opposition between two cultures as being basically the opposition between money and spirit. The English adventurers sing about being motivated by "glory, God and gold", while the Indians emphasize maintaining their ancient ways and keeping the "sacred fire strong." Fruzińska says of the Indian culture that "It is an idyllic way of life, based on tradition and in harmony with Mother Nature, where toddlers walk hand in hand with the old, and warriors happily return to their families from the war to keep peace." p. 76. [I should point out here that if the Indians are returning from a war, presumably with other Indians, then their lifestyle may not be so idyllic after all But I suppose that's a quibble.}
Fruzińska states that Disney is clearly positioning the Indians, strong in spirituality, as the good guys, and the greedy, imperialistic English as bad guy invaders. She says the myth of the frontier is shown as "no longer politically correct" p. 76.
[The choice by Disney to make the English the "bad guys" in opposition to the faultless Indians is what appealed to Native American actor and former activist,, Russell Means, when choosing to participate in the movie as Powhatan's voice. He nevertheless received much criticism by Native Americans for taking the role, as many were put off by the idea of turning a sad abduction narrative, into a fun-for-the-whole-family children's movie. Means defended his choice in several interviews, but he may have had some regrets.]
Fruzińska objects somewhat to a statement by Jhappan and Stasiulis 2005 when they say that the Native Americans are portrayed more realistically than the English. Fruzińska counters that both the settlers and the Indians are equally caricaturized. She says that the Indians are "reduced to the idea of the Romantic noble savage or an exotic prop." p. 77. Disney, she says, assumes that by sanitizing the Other, portraying them as ecologically and socially in harmony, they become more acceptable to the audience who might otherwise object to their otherness.
Fruzińska quotes Whitley 2008 "their [the film's moral and political agendas'] combined effect is not only to enhance the idealized image of the Indians as non-predatory, near vegetarians but also to imply that no market forces operate in the innocent world of nature the the Indians inhabit" (Whitley 2008, 85) in Fruzińska p. 77. The purpose of this is to emphasize the opposition between the spiritual Indians and the greedy settlers.
Fruzińska says that the above dynamic extends to the animals associated with each culture. Percy, the dog belonging to Ratcliffe, is decadent, taking bubble baths and eating cherries from expensive tableware. Meanwhile, Meeko, the raccoon of Pocahontas is faster and more clever, and obviously well in tune with nature. The audience is presumed to choose Meeko as the more likeable of the two animals. Making a connection to Emerson, Fruzińska states, "It is interesting that the animals are the first who stop fighting. The order of peacemaking includes first Meeko and Percy, then Native Americans, and whites at the very end. As in Transcendentalism, the closer one is to nature, the greater one's insight." p. 77
Fruzińska next points out that Pocahontas does not fit in well with the other tribal members, preferring to roam the forest contemplating her destiny rather than spending time farming like the other women. When told that she has been chosen to marry the great warrior, Kocoum, she is not happy, as she finds him too serious and boring. Fruzińska writes, "Pocahontas feels that she is destined for something greater. As a self-reliant individual, she has transcendental yearnings to experience something beyond everyday existence, and she sees Kocoum as a possible end to her dreams. of being special" p. 78
The next paragraph shows how the lyrics of a song ("Just Around the Riverbend") expand upon the idea that in Disney's view, being self-reliant and different from others is superior. When her father wants her to be steady like a river, she prefers to see the river as representing change, always wondering what's around the next bend in the river. For Pocahontas, "steady as the beating drum" (stability) is not an asset, but a defect.
Quoting Ward (2002), Fruzińska notes that Pocahontas's complexion is less dark than that of other Indians. She is a flawless beauty, as would be expected of a Disney heroine, with "the unrealistic proportions of a Barbie doll" p. 79.
Pocahontas is the only Indian to exhibit unfettered individualism. When Powhatan tells her that "sometimes our paths are chosen for us," she refuses to comply and chooses her own path. p. 79
When Pocahontas has doubts about her path, she consults Grandmother Willow, the willow tree. who acts as her spiritual advisor. Her presence indicates Pocahontas's ability to communicate with nature. Grandmother Willow advises Pocahontas to "listen with her heart," a concept which Fruzińska likens to Emerson's (apparent) belief that intuition is superior to reason. Somehow truth is felt rather than thought. p. 79
Emerson is quoted as saying that the lover of nature retains the spirit of infancy, and Fruzińska notes that the "Native Americans in Pocahontas are depicted exactly as "retaining the spirit of infancy" " p. 80
Fruzińska states that Pocahontas's savagery is stressed by her movements like an animal in the scene before she meets John Smith. p. 80
John Smith is portrayed as having different motivations compared to the other English settlers. Ratcliffe dreams of gold and power, while John Smith is motivated by discovery and adventure. p. 81 When Smith saves a sailor during a storm, he is shown to be "one of the people." p. 82
Smith is the only white who can talk to Grandmother Willow, thanks to a little help from Pocahontas. "Yet, as he does not look down on the other sailors, it is clear that he is not substantially different from other Englishmen, only a better specimen of them. This ... agrees with Emerson's idea that the genius is a 'representative man' ..." p. 82
Quoting Jhappan and Stasiulis (2005), Fruzińska says that "the real John Smith was not that friendly toward Indians" p. 82. [This is certainly true in comparison to the animated version of John Smith, but the real life John Smith's relationship to the Indians was more nuanced than this single quote reveals.] To be a Disney hero, of course, Smith needs to be free of racism, and his presence in the movie shows that racism is not necessarily an English character trait, but rather an individual flaw in some English. Fruzińska says that near the end of the movie, all the settlers except Ratcliffe are absolved of their greediness and imperialism.
Fruzińska seems to have trouble fitting Ratcliffe into the Emerson narrative. She writes, "It is important to note that Ratcliffe's difference from the community is not a token of self-reliance. The governor is conditioned by greed [earlier ascribed to his "aristocratic decadence:] rather than by being true to himself; his impulses are far from godly. Not every difference can be accounted for in Emersonian terms; while the villain is to an extent individualized, he is defeated because he is not self-reliant." p. 83
Fruzińska devotes a paragraph to Pocahontas's sudden ability to speak fluent English after she is encouraged by Grandmother Willow to listen with her heart. No mention is made of the practical reasons for this from a Disney movie-for-children point of view, but rather Fruzińska connects this to a Christian notion that a connection with God can return one to original innocence where people speak a universal language. This is further connected to Emerson's faculty of poetic insight providing special abilities. Fruzińska points out that Pocahontas must learn Smith's language, and not the other way around [again ignoring the practical artistic reasons for this]. This puts her in a subordinate position, as she is on her own land, but "she must conform to the invader's customs." p. 83 {The real John Smith, of course, did attempt to learn Pocahontas's language.]
During the song "Colors of the Wind", Pocahontas schools Smith on who among them are the real savages, showing him that the Indians live in harmony with nature, unlike the English. During this song, it becomes apparent that Smith has nothing to teach her in return, as only the Indian connection to nature is presumed to have value in the Disney worldview. p. 83, 84
Fruzińska notes that John Smith is the only Englishman to earn the approval of Grandmother Willow, and he alone among them is able to communicate with her. She even goes as far as tripping the others with her roots. p. 84
When the song "Savages" plays, we are to notice that each side views the other as savages, and so we see prejudice on both sides. Fruzińska points out, however, that "such symmetry is historically unjustified, as it suggests that both parties are equally responsible for war and blurs any distinction between victim and aggressor. If in other, ideologically more innocent, instances, Native Americans are idealized and seen as better than whites, in the crucial moment where the historical truth of the genocide of Indians is essential, they are depicted as a war party equivalent to the settlers. Their Emersonian harmony with nature is shattered when the issue of responsibility for the fight is at stake." p. 85
War between the Indians and the English de-individualizes both sides and turns them into mobs with the "worst human instincts". The English attack the people who might otherwise help them survive in America, and it causes the Indians to want to execute the only Englishman who is not their enemy. Pocahontas then performs the famous rescue act for which she is best known, and she throws herself over Smith to prevent his death. Fortunately for Smith, Powhatan see the light and falls in step with Pocahontas's peace-loving spirit. p. 85
The individualism and self-reliance displayed by Pocahontas and Smith then infects the other English. The settlers now refuse to shoot at the Indians, which obliges Ratcliffe to attempt an assassination of Powhatan on his own. He shoots and Smith takes his turn at sacrificing his body, taking the bullet himself. Smith is then obliged to return to England for treatment. p. 85 [Two points I'd like to make here. Somehow, Ratcliffe doesn't get any points for his individualism and self-reliance. Apparently villains aren't allowed to share in the Emersonian vision of the ideal human. Next, I find the re-imagining of Smith's injury and need to return to England as fairly brilliant from a Disney story-telling point of view. I can also see why Native Americans would not appreciate this fanciful revision.]
When Smith departs for England, Pocahontas is shown wearing her mother's necklace, symbolizing her return to her community. Her tribe now respects her individuality and leadership, which she is now presumed to employ for the benefit of her people. p. 86
Fruzińska next devotes a paragraph to the secondary characters Nakoma (Pocahontas's friend) and Thomas, a second-tier John Smith. These characters don't quite measure up to Pocahontas and Smith, but they are on the right track in trending outside the norms of society. p. 86
Fruzińska writes that Disney had often been criticized by feminists for always having their main characters find happiness by falling in love with the prince and living happily ever after. For this reason, Disney made the supposedly "empowering" choice of having Pocahontas refuse to leave for England with Smith and remain to help her people. Laurent Dundes (2001) is then cited as believing this is "only a passage from one stereotype of femininity to another; from a happy bride to a selfless nurturer (Dundes 2001, 354, 355)" in Fruzińska, p 86. Fruzińska then writes, "Just as with other female characters, Pocahontas's self-reliance can be questioned, taking into account the importance of the role played by her romantic interest." p. 86
Fruzińska next quotes Whitley (2008): "Pocahontas's decision not to go off with John Smith ... springs from her deep-rooted commitment to her own people and to the land of which they are part" (Whitley 2008, 83) in Fruzińska p. 87. Fruzińska further quotes Whitley's explanation that despite Pocahontas's openness to other cultures, her values are strong enough to withstand the allure of the colonizers. [I would note that the real history of Pocahontas does not necessarily bear this out, though there may be a hint of it in Pocahontas's purported final words to John Smith.] p. 87
"This utopian conclusion reaffirms Pocahontas's status as the Other: she cannot go with John Smith mostly because she is not part of the corrupt world of the whites, but remaining a perfect noble savage, she is part of the landscape of America; where she able to exist outside it, the whole message of the film would be very different." p. 87
The next two paragraphs deviate from the Emerson theme and instead deal with the controversies regarding the animated film's historical inaccuracies. Fruzińska explains that while Disney hired Native Americans consultants for the movie, many Native Americans were nevertheless put off by the film's historical distortions. She quotes "people who today identify themselves with the Powhatan tribe" as saying, "We of the Powhatan Nation disagree. The film distorts history beyond recognition. Our offers to assist Disney with cultural and historical accuracy were rejected." (Crazy Horse) p. 87. The inaccuracies that provoke such disdain are the well-known difference in age between the real and Disney Pocahontas and the romance with John Smith. A line from Elaine Dutka (1995) quoting Shirley Little Dove Custalow goes, " ... by making Pocahontas older we lose the message that children are our future." (Dutka 1995, F1) in Fruzińska p. 88. Additional points of contention are the absence of any mention of her abduction, her baptism and forced marriage to John Rolfe. p. 88.
Fruzińska next goes into a discussion of Tilton (1994), who reminded us that Disney was not the first to make the Pocahontas story a romance. In the early 19th Century, John Smith took the place of John Rolfe as Pocahontas's love interest in the narratives in order to de-emphasize miscegenation. This was possible since Smith is presumed to not have consummated his relationship with Pocahontas. Ignoring for a moment the non-consummation aspect, partial Inspiration for the John Smith romance idea may have also come from the Doña Marina story, where the Indian lover of Cortes aided the conquistador in his conquest of Mexico. Quoting Tilton, Fruzińska writes, "The Indians are defeated not solely by the superior arms of the Europeans, but also by the irresistible sexual attractiveness of their charismatic leaders" (p. 65 of Tilton) in Fruzińska , p. 88.
In the same paragraph as the above, Fruzińska begins a discussion of the "good Indian." as it appears in Tilton. {I should point out that the "good Indian" concept is not being promoted in Tilton or in Fruzińska, but rather explained./identified.] Fruzińska says the idea of the "good Indian" "appeased American consciences." p. 88. She quotes Tilton, "Pocahontas is an amazing exception to those who were normally thought to be ready to practice the worst type of savagery. Her actions could then be appreciated without having to alter one's well-established hatred and fear of Indians." (Tilton, p. 40, in Fruzińska p. 88). The "good Indian" was exceptional among Indians by "... maintaining his or her exotic qualities" but at the same time being able to discern "... the correctness or inevitability of white conquest of American" (Tilton p. 27, in Fruzińska p. 88). In this way, the "good Indian" supports and cooperates with America's "Manifest Destiny." p. 88
Fruzińska then quotes Henry A. Giroux, who says of Disney that it is "appropriat[ing] nostalgia simply to maximize consumption in the interest of fun and commerce" (Giroux 2001, 43, in Fruzińska p. 89). She quotes Annalee R. Ward re. Disney: "kill[ing] the idea of history by presenting it as entertainment *(Ward 2002, 37, in Fruzińska p. 89). [I would interject, 'What historical movie or documentary doesn't try to be entertaining?'] Disney animator Glen Keane is then quoted as saying, "We had to decide between being historically accurate or socially responsible" (Ward 36-37, in Fruzińska p. 89). Returning to the Emerson theme, Fruzińska writes, "The story of Pocahontas is altered in a way to show the girl as an Emersonian self-reliant individual, trusting her natural impulses, disregarding her community, and following her private desires. This is the message that the [Disney] Company deems 'socially responsible,' and these are the values it chooses to reaffirm." p. 89
Fruzińska points out that Disney never tries to make its movies historically accurate, so the often heard criticism that Pocahontas does not reflect the true history is pointless. She quotes Tilton to buttress this idea: "by the second half of the nineteenth century the Pocahontas narrative was so ingrained in the American consciousness that its authenticity had ceased to be an issue of any significance" (Tilton 1994, 5, in Fruzińska p. 89). She next writes that Disney embraces a "postmodern understanding of history, in which," according to Baudrillard "history is indeterminate and historical narrative is impossible because there now exists the potential for re-narrativization of every sequence of meaning" (Silverman 2002, 301, in Fruzińska p. 89). This, according to Fruzińska, means that "there is no history, only interpretations." p. 89.
Fruzińska states that because Disney de-historicizes history it is able to impose American/Disney ideology upon all narratives, highlighting the desirability of individualism. She says de-historicization is also true of Disneyworld, "which, as Baudrillard shows, depicts history by erasing time and presenting all historical periods as simultaneous" (Baudrillard 1994, 6, in Fruzińska p. 90).
Fruzińska next devotes two long paragraphs to a summary of Disney's Brother Bear (2003), which is Disney's subsequent attempt at telling the story of indigenous America. In this story, the male Inuit protagonist, Kenai, is transformed by angry spirits into a bear. The story takes place before the arrival of whites into America, so there are no references to European culture. However, Disney still sets up the corrupt culture vs idealized nature dynamic by giving the Inuit the role of the imperialists, while the bears represent the unspoiled vision of nature. After Brother Bear, Fruzińska goes into a discussion of Aladdin. p 91.
Fruzińska has a nice writing style, and as much as I'd like to quote her extensively on the Pocahontas chapter, I suspect she would not be happy about that, since she chose not to provide a handout of her presentation on it at the Pocahontas and After conference, preferring that interested people buy her book (which I did). I would encourage any readers here to do the same. Meanwhile, I will paraphrase some parts and quote her words somewhat sparingly.
She begins the chapter by stating that Disney adapts stories from various cultures, giving them well-known American themes. Pocahontas, she says, is an example of how the heroine has individualistic goals despite coming from a communal culture.
Fruzińska quotes Stephanie A. Sellers' definition of "Native Communal Ethics" and shows how Pocahontas mostly fails to live up to those. Sellers identifies four conditions "members of the community; in relationship with each other; intelligent, sentient, conscious, and having spirit; able to communicate to human beings if they with to" (Sellers 2008, 23) in Fruzińska p. 75. Fruzińska states that the Pocahontas character exhibits little consciousness of belonging to a community, and her "relationship to all beings" is reduced to her communicating to a willow tree. {I feel I should object here, as Pocahontas clearly also exhibits a special relationship with Meeko, the raccoon.] She states that "Pocahontas is mostly a self-reliant individual and the community is only an impediment to her personal development, which she does not hesitate to put in danger for the sake of her romance." p. 75.
Fruzińska shows how the opening scenes of Pocahontas establish the opposition between two cultures as being basically the opposition between money and spirit. The English adventurers sing about being motivated by "glory, God and gold", while the Indians emphasize maintaining their ancient ways and keeping the "sacred fire strong." Fruzińska says of the Indian culture that "It is an idyllic way of life, based on tradition and in harmony with Mother Nature, where toddlers walk hand in hand with the old, and warriors happily return to their families from the war to keep peace." p. 76. [I should point out here that if the Indians are returning from a war, presumably with other Indians, then their lifestyle may not be so idyllic after all But I suppose that's a quibble.}
Fruzińska states that Disney is clearly positioning the Indians, strong in spirituality, as the good guys, and the greedy, imperialistic English as bad guy invaders. She says the myth of the frontier is shown as "no longer politically correct" p. 76.
[The choice by Disney to make the English the "bad guys" in opposition to the faultless Indians is what appealed to Native American actor and former activist,, Russell Means, when choosing to participate in the movie as Powhatan's voice. He nevertheless received much criticism by Native Americans for taking the role, as many were put off by the idea of turning a sad abduction narrative, into a fun-for-the-whole-family children's movie. Means defended his choice in several interviews, but he may have had some regrets.]
Fruzińska objects somewhat to a statement by Jhappan and Stasiulis 2005 when they say that the Native Americans are portrayed more realistically than the English. Fruzińska counters that both the settlers and the Indians are equally caricaturized. She says that the Indians are "reduced to the idea of the Romantic noble savage or an exotic prop." p. 77. Disney, she says, assumes that by sanitizing the Other, portraying them as ecologically and socially in harmony, they become more acceptable to the audience who might otherwise object to their otherness.
Fruzińska quotes Whitley 2008 "their [the film's moral and political agendas'] combined effect is not only to enhance the idealized image of the Indians as non-predatory, near vegetarians but also to imply that no market forces operate in the innocent world of nature the the Indians inhabit" (Whitley 2008, 85) in Fruzińska p. 77. The purpose of this is to emphasize the opposition between the spiritual Indians and the greedy settlers.
Fruzińska says that the above dynamic extends to the animals associated with each culture. Percy, the dog belonging to Ratcliffe, is decadent, taking bubble baths and eating cherries from expensive tableware. Meanwhile, Meeko, the raccoon of Pocahontas is faster and more clever, and obviously well in tune with nature. The audience is presumed to choose Meeko as the more likeable of the two animals. Making a connection to Emerson, Fruzińska states, "It is interesting that the animals are the first who stop fighting. The order of peacemaking includes first Meeko and Percy, then Native Americans, and whites at the very end. As in Transcendentalism, the closer one is to nature, the greater one's insight." p. 77
Fruzińska next points out that Pocahontas does not fit in well with the other tribal members, preferring to roam the forest contemplating her destiny rather than spending time farming like the other women. When told that she has been chosen to marry the great warrior, Kocoum, she is not happy, as she finds him too serious and boring. Fruzińska writes, "Pocahontas feels that she is destined for something greater. As a self-reliant individual, she has transcendental yearnings to experience something beyond everyday existence, and she sees Kocoum as a possible end to her dreams. of being special" p. 78
The next paragraph shows how the lyrics of a song ("Just Around the Riverbend") expand upon the idea that in Disney's view, being self-reliant and different from others is superior. When her father wants her to be steady like a river, she prefers to see the river as representing change, always wondering what's around the next bend in the river. For Pocahontas, "steady as the beating drum" (stability) is not an asset, but a defect.
Quoting Ward (2002), Fruzińska notes that Pocahontas's complexion is less dark than that of other Indians. She is a flawless beauty, as would be expected of a Disney heroine, with "the unrealistic proportions of a Barbie doll" p. 79.
Pocahontas is the only Indian to exhibit unfettered individualism. When Powhatan tells her that "sometimes our paths are chosen for us," she refuses to comply and chooses her own path. p. 79
When Pocahontas has doubts about her path, she consults Grandmother Willow, the willow tree. who acts as her spiritual advisor. Her presence indicates Pocahontas's ability to communicate with nature. Grandmother Willow advises Pocahontas to "listen with her heart," a concept which Fruzińska likens to Emerson's (apparent) belief that intuition is superior to reason. Somehow truth is felt rather than thought. p. 79
Emerson is quoted as saying that the lover of nature retains the spirit of infancy, and Fruzińska notes that the "Native Americans in Pocahontas are depicted exactly as "retaining the spirit of infancy" " p. 80
Fruzińska states that Pocahontas's savagery is stressed by her movements like an animal in the scene before she meets John Smith. p. 80
John Smith is portrayed as having different motivations compared to the other English settlers. Ratcliffe dreams of gold and power, while John Smith is motivated by discovery and adventure. p. 81 When Smith saves a sailor during a storm, he is shown to be "one of the people." p. 82
Smith is the only white who can talk to Grandmother Willow, thanks to a little help from Pocahontas. "Yet, as he does not look down on the other sailors, it is clear that he is not substantially different from other Englishmen, only a better specimen of them. This ... agrees with Emerson's idea that the genius is a 'representative man' ..." p. 82
Quoting Jhappan and Stasiulis (2005), Fruzińska says that "the real John Smith was not that friendly toward Indians" p. 82. [This is certainly true in comparison to the animated version of John Smith, but the real life John Smith's relationship to the Indians was more nuanced than this single quote reveals.] To be a Disney hero, of course, Smith needs to be free of racism, and his presence in the movie shows that racism is not necessarily an English character trait, but rather an individual flaw in some English. Fruzińska says that near the end of the movie, all the settlers except Ratcliffe are absolved of their greediness and imperialism.
Fruzińska seems to have trouble fitting Ratcliffe into the Emerson narrative. She writes, "It is important to note that Ratcliffe's difference from the community is not a token of self-reliance. The governor is conditioned by greed [earlier ascribed to his "aristocratic decadence:] rather than by being true to himself; his impulses are far from godly. Not every difference can be accounted for in Emersonian terms; while the villain is to an extent individualized, he is defeated because he is not self-reliant." p. 83
Fruzińska devotes a paragraph to Pocahontas's sudden ability to speak fluent English after she is encouraged by Grandmother Willow to listen with her heart. No mention is made of the practical reasons for this from a Disney movie-for-children point of view, but rather Fruzińska connects this to a Christian notion that a connection with God can return one to original innocence where people speak a universal language. This is further connected to Emerson's faculty of poetic insight providing special abilities. Fruzińska points out that Pocahontas must learn Smith's language, and not the other way around [again ignoring the practical artistic reasons for this]. This puts her in a subordinate position, as she is on her own land, but "she must conform to the invader's customs." p. 83 {The real John Smith, of course, did attempt to learn Pocahontas's language.]
During the song "Colors of the Wind", Pocahontas schools Smith on who among them are the real savages, showing him that the Indians live in harmony with nature, unlike the English. During this song, it becomes apparent that Smith has nothing to teach her in return, as only the Indian connection to nature is presumed to have value in the Disney worldview. p. 83, 84
Fruzińska notes that John Smith is the only Englishman to earn the approval of Grandmother Willow, and he alone among them is able to communicate with her. She even goes as far as tripping the others with her roots. p. 84
When the song "Savages" plays, we are to notice that each side views the other as savages, and so we see prejudice on both sides. Fruzińska points out, however, that "such symmetry is historically unjustified, as it suggests that both parties are equally responsible for war and blurs any distinction between victim and aggressor. If in other, ideologically more innocent, instances, Native Americans are idealized and seen as better than whites, in the crucial moment where the historical truth of the genocide of Indians is essential, they are depicted as a war party equivalent to the settlers. Their Emersonian harmony with nature is shattered when the issue of responsibility for the fight is at stake." p. 85
War between the Indians and the English de-individualizes both sides and turns them into mobs with the "worst human instincts". The English attack the people who might otherwise help them survive in America, and it causes the Indians to want to execute the only Englishman who is not their enemy. Pocahontas then performs the famous rescue act for which she is best known, and she throws herself over Smith to prevent his death. Fortunately for Smith, Powhatan see the light and falls in step with Pocahontas's peace-loving spirit. p. 85
The individualism and self-reliance displayed by Pocahontas and Smith then infects the other English. The settlers now refuse to shoot at the Indians, which obliges Ratcliffe to attempt an assassination of Powhatan on his own. He shoots and Smith takes his turn at sacrificing his body, taking the bullet himself. Smith is then obliged to return to England for treatment. p. 85 [Two points I'd like to make here. Somehow, Ratcliffe doesn't get any points for his individualism and self-reliance. Apparently villains aren't allowed to share in the Emersonian vision of the ideal human. Next, I find the re-imagining of Smith's injury and need to return to England as fairly brilliant from a Disney story-telling point of view. I can also see why Native Americans would not appreciate this fanciful revision.]
When Smith departs for England, Pocahontas is shown wearing her mother's necklace, symbolizing her return to her community. Her tribe now respects her individuality and leadership, which she is now presumed to employ for the benefit of her people. p. 86
Fruzińska next devotes a paragraph to the secondary characters Nakoma (Pocahontas's friend) and Thomas, a second-tier John Smith. These characters don't quite measure up to Pocahontas and Smith, but they are on the right track in trending outside the norms of society. p. 86
Fruzińska writes that Disney had often been criticized by feminists for always having their main characters find happiness by falling in love with the prince and living happily ever after. For this reason, Disney made the supposedly "empowering" choice of having Pocahontas refuse to leave for England with Smith and remain to help her people. Laurent Dundes (2001) is then cited as believing this is "only a passage from one stereotype of femininity to another; from a happy bride to a selfless nurturer (Dundes 2001, 354, 355)" in Fruzińska, p 86. Fruzińska then writes, "Just as with other female characters, Pocahontas's self-reliance can be questioned, taking into account the importance of the role played by her romantic interest." p. 86
Fruzińska next quotes Whitley (2008): "Pocahontas's decision not to go off with John Smith ... springs from her deep-rooted commitment to her own people and to the land of which they are part" (Whitley 2008, 83) in Fruzińska p. 87. Fruzińska further quotes Whitley's explanation that despite Pocahontas's openness to other cultures, her values are strong enough to withstand the allure of the colonizers. [I would note that the real history of Pocahontas does not necessarily bear this out, though there may be a hint of it in Pocahontas's purported final words to John Smith.] p. 87
"This utopian conclusion reaffirms Pocahontas's status as the Other: she cannot go with John Smith mostly because she is not part of the corrupt world of the whites, but remaining a perfect noble savage, she is part of the landscape of America; where she able to exist outside it, the whole message of the film would be very different." p. 87
The next two paragraphs deviate from the Emerson theme and instead deal with the controversies regarding the animated film's historical inaccuracies. Fruzińska explains that while Disney hired Native Americans consultants for the movie, many Native Americans were nevertheless put off by the film's historical distortions. She quotes "people who today identify themselves with the Powhatan tribe" as saying, "We of the Powhatan Nation disagree. The film distorts history beyond recognition. Our offers to assist Disney with cultural and historical accuracy were rejected." (Crazy Horse) p. 87. The inaccuracies that provoke such disdain are the well-known difference in age between the real and Disney Pocahontas and the romance with John Smith. A line from Elaine Dutka (1995) quoting Shirley Little Dove Custalow goes, " ... by making Pocahontas older we lose the message that children are our future." (Dutka 1995, F1) in Fruzińska p. 88. Additional points of contention are the absence of any mention of her abduction, her baptism and forced marriage to John Rolfe. p. 88.
Fruzińska next goes into a discussion of Tilton (1994), who reminded us that Disney was not the first to make the Pocahontas story a romance. In the early 19th Century, John Smith took the place of John Rolfe as Pocahontas's love interest in the narratives in order to de-emphasize miscegenation. This was possible since Smith is presumed to not have consummated his relationship with Pocahontas. Ignoring for a moment the non-consummation aspect, partial Inspiration for the John Smith romance idea may have also come from the Doña Marina story, where the Indian lover of Cortes aided the conquistador in his conquest of Mexico. Quoting Tilton, Fruzińska writes, "The Indians are defeated not solely by the superior arms of the Europeans, but also by the irresistible sexual attractiveness of their charismatic leaders" (p. 65 of Tilton) in Fruzińska , p. 88.
In the same paragraph as the above, Fruzińska begins a discussion of the "good Indian." as it appears in Tilton. {I should point out that the "good Indian" concept is not being promoted in Tilton or in Fruzińska, but rather explained./identified.] Fruzińska says the idea of the "good Indian" "appeased American consciences." p. 88. She quotes Tilton, "Pocahontas is an amazing exception to those who were normally thought to be ready to practice the worst type of savagery. Her actions could then be appreciated without having to alter one's well-established hatred and fear of Indians." (Tilton, p. 40, in Fruzińska p. 88). The "good Indian" was exceptional among Indians by "... maintaining his or her exotic qualities" but at the same time being able to discern "... the correctness or inevitability of white conquest of American" (Tilton p. 27, in Fruzińska p. 88). In this way, the "good Indian" supports and cooperates with America's "Manifest Destiny." p. 88
Fruzińska then quotes Henry A. Giroux, who says of Disney that it is "appropriat[ing] nostalgia simply to maximize consumption in the interest of fun and commerce" (Giroux 2001, 43, in Fruzińska p. 89). She quotes Annalee R. Ward re. Disney: "kill[ing] the idea of history by presenting it as entertainment *(Ward 2002, 37, in Fruzińska p. 89). [I would interject, 'What historical movie or documentary doesn't try to be entertaining?'] Disney animator Glen Keane is then quoted as saying, "We had to decide between being historically accurate or socially responsible" (Ward 36-37, in Fruzińska p. 89). Returning to the Emerson theme, Fruzińska writes, "The story of Pocahontas is altered in a way to show the girl as an Emersonian self-reliant individual, trusting her natural impulses, disregarding her community, and following her private desires. This is the message that the [Disney] Company deems 'socially responsible,' and these are the values it chooses to reaffirm." p. 89
Fruzińska points out that Disney never tries to make its movies historically accurate, so the often heard criticism that Pocahontas does not reflect the true history is pointless. She quotes Tilton to buttress this idea: "by the second half of the nineteenth century the Pocahontas narrative was so ingrained in the American consciousness that its authenticity had ceased to be an issue of any significance" (Tilton 1994, 5, in Fruzińska p. 89). She next writes that Disney embraces a "postmodern understanding of history, in which," according to Baudrillard "history is indeterminate and historical narrative is impossible because there now exists the potential for re-narrativization of every sequence of meaning" (Silverman 2002, 301, in Fruzińska p. 89). This, according to Fruzińska, means that "there is no history, only interpretations." p. 89.
Fruzińska states that because Disney de-historicizes history it is able to impose American/Disney ideology upon all narratives, highlighting the desirability of individualism. She says de-historicization is also true of Disneyworld, "which, as Baudrillard shows, depicts history by erasing time and presenting all historical periods as simultaneous" (Baudrillard 1994, 6, in Fruzińska p. 90).
Fruzińska next devotes two long paragraphs to a summary of Disney's Brother Bear (2003), which is Disney's subsequent attempt at telling the story of indigenous America. In this story, the male Inuit protagonist, Kenai, is transformed by angry spirits into a bear. The story takes place before the arrival of whites into America, so there are no references to European culture. However, Disney still sets up the corrupt culture vs idealized nature dynamic by giving the Inuit the role of the imperialists, while the bears represent the unspoiled vision of nature. After Brother Bear, Fruzińska goes into a discussion of Aladdin. p 91.
Emerson Goes to the Movies also has chapters or sections dealing with Treasure Planet, The Little Mermaid, Aladdin, Beauty and the Beast, Mulan, Atlantis: The Lost Empire, The Hunchback of Notre Dame, and A Bug's Life.
Sources quoted in Fruzińska that appear above;
* The Crazy Horse page referenced as a source above appears to have been removed by its authors. A Google cached version was available for a while, but it has disappeared, too. I am posting a PDF version of the article below to archive the reference.
- Allen, Paula Gunn. 1989. "Introduction." In Spider Woman's Granddaughters: Traditional Tales and Contemporary Writing by Native American Women, ed. Paula Gunn Allen, 1-21. Boston: Beacon Press.
- Arieli, Yehoshua. 1964. Individualism and Nationalism in American Ideology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
- Artz, Lee, 2005. "Monarchs, Monsters, and Multiculturalism: Disney's Menu for Global Hierarchy." In Rethinking Disney: Private Control, Public Dimensions, eds. Mike Budd, Max H. Kirsch, 75-98. Middletown, Connecticut:: Wesleyan University Press.
- Baudrillard, Jean. 1994. Simulacra and Simulation. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
- Bloom, Harold. 1975. A Map of Misreading. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Crazy Horse, Chief R. "The Pocahontas Myth." Available from http://www.powhatan.org/pocc.html *
- Davis, Amy M. 2006. Good Girls and Wicked Witches: Women in Disney's Feature Animation. Eastleigh: John Libbey Publishing.
- Dundes, Lauren. 2001. "Disney's Modern Heroine Pocahontas: Revealing Age-Old Gender Stereotypes and Role Discontinuity Under a Facade of Liberation." Social Science Journal (38): 353-65.
- Dutka, Elaine. 1995. "Disney's History Lesson." LA Times, Feb. 9.
- Giroux, Henry A. 2001. The Mouse that Roared: Disney and the End of Innocence. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
- Jhappan, Radha, and Daiva Stasiulis. 2005. "Anglophilia and the Discreet Charm of the English Voice in Disney's Pocahontas Films." In Rethinking Disney: Private Control, Public Dimensions, eds. Mike Budd, Max H. Kirsch, 75-98. Middletown, Connecticut:: Wesleyan University Press.
- Lipset, Seymour Martin. 1997. American Exceptionalism: A Double-Edged Sword. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.
- Sellers, Stephanie A. 2008. Native American Women's Studies: A Primer. New York: Peter Lang.
- Silverman, Helaine. 2002. "Groovin' to Ancient Peru: A Critical Analysis of Disney's "The Emperor's New Groove," Journal of Social Archaeology 2 (3) (October 01): 298-322.
- Tilton, Robert S. 1994. Pocahontas: The Evolution of an American Narrative. New York. Cambridge University Press.
- Ward, Annalee R. 2002. Mouse Morality: The Rhetoric of Disney Animated Film. Austin: University of Texas Press.
- Whitley, David. 2008. The Idea of Nature in Disney Animation. Abingdon, Oxon. GBR: Ashgate Publishing Group.
* The Crazy Horse page referenced as a source above appears to have been removed by its authors. A Google cached version was available for a while, but it has disappeared, too. I am posting a PDF version of the article below to archive the reference.
| the_pocahontas_myth.pdf |
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